BOTONY

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Botany, plant science(s), phytology, or plant biology is a branch of biology that involves the scientific study of plant life. Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines concerned with the study of plants, algae and fungi, including structure, growth, reproduction, metabolism, development, diseases, chemical properties, and evolutionary relationships between taxonomic groups. Botany began with early human efforts to identify edible, medicinal and poisonous plants, making it one of the oldest sciences. Today botanists study over 550,000 species of living organisms.

As with other life forms in biology, plant life can be studied from different perspectives, from the molecular, genetic and biochemical level through organelles, cells, tissues, organs, individuals, plant populations, and communities of plants. At each of these levels a botanist might be concerned with the classification (taxonomy), structure (anatomy and morphology), or function (physiology) of plant life.

Historically all living things were grouped as animals or plants, and botany covered all organisms not considered animals. Some organisms once included in the field of botany are no longer considered to belong to the plant kingdom – these include fungi (studied in mycology), lichens (lichenology), bacteria (bacteriology), viruses (virology) and single-celled algae, which are now grouped as part of the Protista. However, attention is still given to these groups by botanists, and fungi, lichens, bacteria and photosynthetic protists are usually covered in introductory botany courses.

The study of plants is vital because they are a fundamental part of life on Earth, which generates the oxygen, food, fibres, fuel and medicine that allow humans and other life forms to exist. Through photosynthesis, plants absorb carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that in large amounts can affect global climate. Additionally, they prevent soil erosion and are influential in the water cycle. A good understanding of plants is crucial to the future of human societies as it allows us to:

* Produce food to feed an expanding population

* Understand fundamental life processes

* Produce medicine and materials to treat diseases and other ailments

* Understand environmental changes more clearly

Paleobotanists study ancient plants in the fossil record. It is believed that early in the Earth's history, the evolution of photosynthetic plants altered the global atmosphere of the earth, changing the ancient atmosphere by oxidation.

 Human nutrition

Nearly all the food we eat comes (directly and indirectly) from plants like this American long grain rice

Virtually all foods eaten come from plants, either directly from staple foods and other fruit and vegetables, or indirectly through livestock or other animals, which rely on plants for their nutrition. Plants are the fundamental base of nearly all food chains because they use the energy from the sun and nutrients from the soil and atmosphere, converting them into a form that can be consumed and utilized by animals; this is what ecologists call the first trophic level. Botanists also study how plants produce food we can eat and how to increase yields and therefore their work is important in mankind's ability to feed the world and provide food security for future generations, for example, through plant breeding. Botanists also study weeds, plants which are considered to be a nuisance in a particular location. Weeds are a considerable problem in agriculture, and botany provides some of the basic science used to understand how to minimize 'weed' impact in agriculture and native ecosystems. Ethnobotany is the study of the relationships between plants and people.

 Fundamental life processes

Plants are convenient organisms in which fundamental life processes (like cell division and protein synthesis) can be studied, without the ethical dilemmas of studying animals or humans. The genetic laws of inheritance were discovered in this way by Gregor Mendel, who was studying the way pea shape is inherited. What Mendel learned from studying plants has had far reaching benefits outside of botany. Additionally, Barbara McClintock discovered 'jumping genes' by studying maize. These are a few examples that demonstrate how botanical research has an ongoing relevance to the understanding of fundamental

 biological processes.

Medicine and materials

Many medicinal and recreational drugs, like tetrahydrocannabinol, caffeine, and nicotine come directly from the plant kingdom. Others are simple derivatives of botanical natural products; for example, aspirin is based on the pain killer salicylic acid which originally came from the bark of willow trees. As well, the narcotic analgesics such as morphine are derived from the opium poppy. There may be many novel cures for diseases provided by plants, waiting to be discovered. Popular stimulants like coffee, chocolate, tobacco, and tea also come from plants. Most alcoholic beverages come from fermenting plants such as barley (beer), rice (sake) and grapes (wine).

Plants also provide us with many natural materials, such as hemp, cotton, wood, paper, linen, vegetable oils, some types of rope, and rubber. The production of silk would not be possible without the cultivation of the mulberry plant. Sugarcane, rapeseed, soy and other plants with a highly fermentable sugar or oil content have recently been put to use as sources of biofuels, which are important alternatives to fossil fuels (see biodiesel).

Environmental changes

Plants can also help us understand changes in on our environment in many ways.

* Understanding habitat destruction and species extinction is dependent on an accurate and complete catalog of plant systematics and taxonomy.

* Plant responses to ultraviolet radiation can help us monitor problems like ozone depletion.

* Analyzing pollen deposited by plants thousands or millions of years ago can help scientists to reconstruct past climates and predict future ones, an essential part of climate change research.

* Recording and analyzing the timing of plant life cycles are important parts of phenology used in climate-change research.

* Lichens, which are sensitive to atmospheric conditions, have been extensively used as pollution indicators.

In many different ways, plants can act a little like the 'miners' canary', an early warning system alerting us to important changes in our environment. In addition to these practical and scientific reasons, plants are extremely valuable as recreation for millions of people who enjoy gardening, horticultural and culinary uses of plants every day.

Qualities preferred for people specializing in botany

* You should enjoy working with plants.

* You should not be allergic to plants and chemicals.

* You should possess analytical skills and implement it in problem solving.

* You should possess the skill to handle delicate laboratory equipments.

* You should be willing to spend long hours in the greenhouse and outside.

* You should be ready to travel far and wide to collect plant specimens.

* You should be willing to work in a team. Scope and importance of botany

Specialization areas in the field of botany

Plant biology specialties

Anatomy: Study of microscopic structures of cells and tissues.

Cytology: Study of structure, function, and life history of plant cells.

Genetics: Study of plant heredity and variation, plant geneticists study genes and gene function of plants.

Biochemistry: Study of chemical aspects of plant life processes, the study also covers the chemical products of plants.

Morphology: Study of macroscopic plant forms, study includes evolution and development of roots, leaves and stems.

Molecular biology: Study of structure and function of biological macromolecules including molecular and biochemical aspects of genetics.

Ecology: Study of relationship between plants and the world both as individuals and as communities.

Biophysics: Study of application of physics to plant life process.

System ecology: Study of concepts like nutrient cycling using mathematical models.

Physiology: Study of functions and important processes of plants. E.g. mineral nutrition, photosynthesis

Taxonomy: Study of identifying, classifying and naming plants.

Paleobotany: Study of biology and evolution of fossil plants.

Systematics: Study of evolutionary history and relationships among plants.

Applied plant

Food science and technology: Study of development of food from various plants.

Plant pathology: Study of diseases in plants.

Forestry: Study of conservation of forests and forest management.

Biotechnology: Study of utilizing biological organisms to produce useful products.

Breeding: Study involving production of better types of plants.

Horticulture: Study of production of vegetables, fruits and ornamental plants.

Agronomy: Study of the soil and crops.

Natural resource management: Studying the use of natural resources and its protection.

Economic botany: Study of plants that are economically important.

Career in Botany - Other specialties

Education: Qualifying to teach in schools, colleges, botanical gardens and museum about plant science.

History: Study of development of botany as a scientific discipline.

Exploration: Seeking out new and undiscovered plants.

Job opportunities in the field of botany

Fresh graduates can gain entry level jobs while a little experience in the field can help them secure management or research opportunities. Plant science has various specialties and career opportunities to offer. The diversity of specialties in botany has provided satisfying careers in the field for people from different backgrounds, interest, and skills. Botany offers equal opportunity to both men and women when compared to any other scientific field.

Outdoor jobs

* Ecologist

* Plant explorer

* Park ranger/Forester

* Nursery manager

* Conservationist

* Taxonomist

* Horticulturist

A person with mathematics background

* Systems ecology

* Biophysics

* Genetics

* Developmental botany

A person with chemistry background

* Plant biochemist

* Chemo taxonomist

* Plant physiologist

* Molecular biologist

* Plant pathologist

Other related job options

* Environmental consultant

* Botanist

* High school botany teacher

* Farming consultant

* Researcher

* Teacher/professor

Career opportunities for botanists

The requirement for botanists and people educated in related fields is growing. Botanists can find prospective jobs with:

* Ecological consulting companies

* USDA branches and US Forest Service

* Federal Agencies

* Colleges, Universities and Plant Research Centers

* Pharmaceutical, food, seed and nursery, fruit growers, biological supply houses and biotechnology firms

* Museums

* Marine/freshwater biologist

* Biological photographer

* US Forest Service employee

* State Park naturalist, college campus grounds administrator, environmental impact specialist, Greenhouse technician

* Agricultural Research Service

* Botanical gardens and arboretums, such as the National Arboretum

* Petrochemical, chemical, and lumber and paper industries

* Environmental and biotechnical regulatory agencies

* National Park Service Employee

* National forestry or conservation expert

* Science columnist

* Landscape management and design

* Consultant, botanist, horticulturist, ecologist, plant specialist

Biophysics

Biophysics is an interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of physics and physical chemistry to study biological systems. Studies included under the branches of biophysics span all levels of biological organization, from the molecular scale to whole organisms and ecosystems. Biophysical research shares significant overlap with biochemistry, nanotechnology, bioengineering, agrophysics and systems biology.

Molecular biophysics typically addresses biological questions that are similar to those in biochemistry and molecular biology, but the questions are approached quantitatively. Scientists in this field conduct research concerned with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interactions between DNA, RNA and protein biosynthesis, as well as how these interactions are regulated. A great variety of techniques are used to answer these questions.

Fluorescent imaging techniques, as well as electron microscopy, x-ray crystallography, NMR spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy (AFM) are often used to visualize structures of biological significance. Conformational change in structure can be measured using techniques such as dual polarisation interferometry and circular dichroism. Direct manipulation of molecules using optical tweezers or AFM can also be used to monitor biological events where forces and distances are at the nanoscale. Molecular biophysicists often consider complex biological events as systems of interacting units which can be understood through statistical mechanics, thermodynamics and chemical kinetics. By drawing knowledge and experimental techniques from a wide variety of disciplines, biophysicists are often able to directly observe, model or even manipulate the structures and interactions of individual molecules or complexes of molecules.

In addition to traditional (i.e. molecular and cellular) biophysical topics like structural biology or enzyme kinetics, modern biophysics encompasses an extraordinarily broad range of research. It is becoming increasingly common for biophysicists to apply the models and experimental techniques derived from physics, as well as mathematics and statistics, to larger systems such as tissues, organs, populations and ecosystems.

Focus as a subfield

Biophysics often does not have university-level departments of its own, but has presence as groups across departments within the fields of molecular biology, biochemistry, chemistry, computer science, mathematics, medicine, pharmacology, physiology, physics, and neuroscience. What follows is a list of examples of how each department applies its efforts toward the study of biophysics. This list is hardly all inclusive. Nor does each subject of study belong exclusively to any particular department. Each academic institution makes its own rules and there is much overlap between departments.

* Biology and molecular biology - Almost all forms of biophysics efforts are included in some biology department somewhere. To include some: gene regulation, single protein dynamics, bioenergetics, patch clamping, biomechanics.

* Structural biology - Ångstrom-resolution structures of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, carbohydrates, and complexes thereof.

* Biochemistry and chemistry - biomolecular structure, siRNA, nucleic acid structure, structure-activity relationships.

* Computer science - Neural networks, biomolecular and drug databases.

* Computational chemistry - molecular dynamics simulation, molecular docking, quantum chemistry

* Bioinformatics - sequence alignment, structural alignment, protein structure prediction

* Mathematics - graph/network theory, population modeling, dynamical systems, phylogenetics.

* Medicine and neuroscience - tackling neural networks experimentally (brain slicing) as well as theoretically (computer models), membrane permitivity, gene therapy, understanding tumors.

* Pharmacology and physiology - channel biology, biomolecular interactions, cellular membranes, polyketides.

* Physics - biomolecular free energy, stochastic processes, covering dynamics.

* Quantum biophysics involves quantum information processing of coherent states, entanglement between coherent protons and transcriptase components, and replication of decohered isomers to yield time-dependent base substitutions. These studies imply applications in quantum computing.

* Agronomy Agriculture Many biophysical techniques are unique to this field. Research efforts in biophysics are often initiated by scientists who were traditional physicists, chemists, and biologists by training.

Careers in Biophysics

# career in biophysics requires the knowledge of mathematics, physics, chemistry and biology. In general, a person with a degree in biophysics is capable of applying different research techniques, can gather and interpret data and has the ability to utilize advanced technology. Biophysics professionals typically work in a laboratory setting for a government agency, a private industry or college or university. There are several different career options for a person interested in biophysics.

Educator

# Career opportunities in biophysics exist in the education field. If this is your desired career path, consider enrolling in a teaching program in addition to a biophysics program during college. People who have received their degree in biophysics and teaching can often find opportunities as an educator at colleges, universities and high schools.

Biophysicist

# According to the Education and Career Information Portal website, research biophysicists are most often employed by government labs, pharmaceutical, biotechnology or nanotechnology companies. Research biophysicists typically work in a laboratory setting and study life processes on a molecular level.

Aquatic Biologist

# A person who has studied biophysics may consider pursuing a career in aquatic biology. According to the website, jobprofiles.org, an aquatic biologist works with living organisms that live in water regions. Aquatic biologists study the environmental impact of industry and human expansion on water organisms, and also provide recommendations and guidelines to government agencies and public industries, according to the website, jobprofiles.org.

Biochemist

# A biochemist studies the chemistry of living organisms. A biochemist may do basic research on the chemistry of living things or applied research, in which he or she works to solve practical problems. According to the website, stateuniversity.com, biochemists are most often employed by colleges or universities, in addition to private firms such as breweries, drug companies, petroleum producers and manufacturers. Biochemists may also work for nonprofit research centers or government agencies.

Geophysicist

# Working as a geophysicist involves studying the physical and atmospheric aspects of the earth and applying scientific principles to solve problems in this area. According to the website, stateuniversity.com, geophysicists often work in earthquake-prone areas. They are generally employed by private communities in mining, oil and natural gas industries in addition to federal or state governments and colleges or universities.

Anatomist

# Anatomists are a type of biological scientist that studies the structure of living organisms. Most anatomists will work in a laboratory environment for a university, medical center or government agency. Anatomists can specialize in a variety of areas, according to stateuniversity.com, including biological imaging, cell biology, genetics, molecular development, histology and microscopy.

Desi hackers join Indian cyber army!

Borrowing a page from China’s art of cyber war, the government is giving shape to an IT infrastructure setup manned by a small army of software professionals to spy on the classified data of hostile nations `by hacking into their computer systems'.

IT workers and ethical hackers who sign up for the ambitious project will be protected by law, says the proposal being discussed by senior government administrators. The expertise of these professionals will be used to go on the offensive or preempt strikes by breaching the security walls of enemy systems.

The strategy of taking the fight to hackers was drafted at a high-level security meet on July 29 chaired by National Security Advisor Shiv Shankar Menon. The meeting was attended by the director of Intelligence Bureau as well as senior officials of the telecom department, IT ministry and security agencies, documents seen by ETshow.

Departments whose officials were present at the meeting did not respond to ET emails. The government is worried about spying and sabotage from neighbouring countries, particularly China and Pakistan, after a spate of assaults on its computer systems in recent times. The Citizen Lab at the University of Toronto said in April that a clique of hackers based in China had conducted extensive spying operations in India, pilfering confidential documents from the defence ministry.

Though Beijing strongly denied any role in the attacks, the investigation pointed to the Chinese government’s tacit approval of the spying operations. The technical reconnaissance bureau of the People’s Liberation Army that is responsible for signals intelligence collection is headquartered in Chengdu, where the hackers had set up base.

According to the government proposal, the National Technical Research Organisation (NTRO) along with Defence Intelligence Agency (DIA) will be responsible for creating cyber-offensive capabilities. NTRO is a key government agency that gathers technical intelligence while DIA is tasked with collating inputs from the Navy, Army and Air Force.

The NTRO will also suggest measures to ensure legal protection to recruits, a move that is expected to coax software professionals into joining the government group because under the Indian IT Act, hacking is punishable with imprisonment up to three years, or carries a fine up to 2 lakh, or both.

“Even if the offense is done on a computer on foreign soil, it is punishable under Indian laws,” says cyber lawyer Pavan Duggal, adding that the IT Act will have to be changed for “patriotic stealth operations” .

Duggal welcomed the efforts to establish a hacker group, pointing to the explosive growth in assaults on Indian systems recently. Last year, 600 computers belonging to the external affairs ministry were hacked, allegedly by Chinese groups. The hackers also managed to steal crucial documents from the computers of the defence establishment then.

Vikas Desai, lead technical lead of network security firm RSA, said the government’s efforts can be classified as ethical hacking. “Many countries and organisations in the world already have this kind of infrastructure,” he said.

In sheer numbers at least, recruitment may not be a problem. The country is due to produce nearly 5.71 lakh technical graduates and postgraduates in 2010, says IT lobby group Nasscom. There is also a teeming workforce in India thanks to large anti-virus and software companies such as McAfee, Microsoft, Intel establishing R&D labs here.