FASHION -DESIGN

Fashion design is the art of the application of design and aesthetics to clothing and accessories. Fashion design is influenced by cultural and social attitudes, and has varied over time and place. Fashion designers work in a number of ways in designing clothing and accessories. Some work alone or as part of a team. They attempt to satisfy consumer desire for aesthetically designed clothing; and, because of the time required to bring a garment onto the market, must at times anticipate changing consumer tastes. Some designers in fact have a reputation which enables them to set fashion trends.

Fashion designers attempt to design clothes which are functional as well as aesthetically pleasing. They must consider who is likely to wear a garment and the situations in which it will be worn. They have a wide range and combinations of materials to work with and a wide range of colors, patterns and styles to choose from. Though most clothing worn for everyday wear fall within a narrow range of conventional styles, unusual garments are usually sought for special occasions, such as evening wear or party dresses.Some clothes are made specifically for an individual, as in the case of haute couture, or off-the-rack. Today, most clothing is designed for the mass market, especially casual and every-day wear.

A fashion collection is something that designers put together each season to show their idea of new trends in both their high end couture range as well as their mass market range. It is considered to have a planned obsolescence usually of one to two seasons. A season is defined as either autumn/winter or spring/summer.

Designing a garment

Fashion designers work in different ways. Some sketch their ideas on paper, while others drape fabric on a dress form. When a designer is completely satisfied with the fit of the toile (or muslin), he or she will consult a professional pattern maker who then makes the finished, working version of the pattern out of card. The pattern maker's job is very precise and painstaking. The fit of the finished garment depends on their accuracy. Finally, a sample garment is made up and tested on a model.

Structure

Fashion designers can work in a number of ways. Fashion designers may work full-time for one fashion company, known as 'in-house designers' which owns the designs. They may work alone or as part of a team. Freelance designers work for themselves, selling their designs to fashion houses, directly to shops, or to clothing manufacturers. The garments bear the buyer's label. Some fashion designers set up their own labels, under which their designs are marketed. Some fashion designers are self-employed and design for individual clients. Other high-fashion designers cater to specialty stores or high-fashion department stores. These designers create original garments, as well as those that follow established fashion trends. Most fashion designers, however, work for apparel manufacturers, creating designs of men’s, women’s, and children’s fashions for the mass market. Large designer brands which have a 'name' as their brand such as Calvin Klein, Gucci, or Chanel are likely to be designed by a team of individual designers under the direction of a designer director.

Types of fashion

The garments produced by clothing manufacturers fall into three main categories, although these may be split up into additional, more specific categories:

Haute couture

Until the 1950s, fashion clothing was predominately designed and manufactured on a made-to-measure or haute couture basis (French for high-fashion), with each garment being created for a specific client. A couture garment is made to order for an individual customer, and is usually made from high-quality, expensive fabric, sewn with extreme attention to detail and finish, often using time-consuming, hand-executed techniques. Look and fit take priority over the cost of materials and the time it takes to make.

Ready-to-wear

Ready-to-wear clothes are a cross between haute couture and mass market. They are not made for individual customers, but great care is taken in the choice and cut of the fabric. Clothes are made in small quantities to guarantee exclusivity, so they are rather expensive. Ready-to-wear collections are usually presented by fashion houses each season during a period known as Fashion Week. This takes place on a city-wide basis and occurs twice a year.

 Mass market

Currently the fashion industry relies more on mass market sales. The mass market caters for a wide range of customers, producing ready-to-wear clothes in large quantities and standard sizes. Cheap materials, creatively used, produce affordable fashion. Mass market designers generally adapt the trends set by the famous names in fashion. They often wait around a season to make sure a style is going to catch on before producing their own versions of the original look. In order to save money and time, they use cheaper fabrics and simpler production techniques which can easily be done by machine. The end product can therefore be sold much more cheaply.

There is a type of design called "kitsch" design. . . originated from the German word "kitschen" meaning ugly or not aesthetically pleasing. Another way to describe the term "kitsch" is "wearing or displaying something that has passed its fashion date and is therefore no longer in fashion. so if you are seen wearing a pair of pants that was once worn in the 80's it is seen to be known as a "kitsch" fashion statement.

Fashion education

There are a number of well known art schools and design schools world wide that offer degrees in fashion design. The most notable of design schools include Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising Fashion Institute of Technology, Istituto Marangoni, Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design, Savannah College of Art and Design, Pratt Institute, London College of Fashion, and University of Westminster in London; Fashion Federation, National Institute Of Fashion Technology, India, Parsons The New School for Design in New York City , Politecnico of Milan, Columbia College Chicago, International Institute of Fashion Design, and National College of Arts (NCA) in Pakistan, and Shih Chien University, and RMIT University in Melbourne, and Fu Jen Catholic University in Taiwan.

Career in Fashion Designing

Fashion designing is one of the most exciting career options in today's world. It is needless to say that in a country like India, where textile and garment industries have been thriving for ages, the recent boom in fashion designing has led to innovation and new prospects in the existing domain of garment and accessory design. If you have a penchant for creativity, style and originality, a career in fashion designing can be perfect for you. On one hand, the fashion industry satisfies both the creative fancies and the materialistic needs of the people, on the other hand it promises glamour, fame, success and high pay packages to the talented people.

However, it is also a demanding career, as fashion designers need to combine their creativity with managerial skills to sustain in this industry. Thus, if you can create magic with colors, designs and shapes, just acquire apt professional skills to begin a successful career in Fashion Designing.

HOTEL MANAGMENT

The boom in the tourism industry has resulted in the immense growth of hotel industry in India. The hotel industry promises a bright future for anyone who wishes to take up a career in this segment. The students opting for hotel management career courses must have an affinity towards socializing and understanding the needs of the people.

As hotels fall under the service industry, the motive of hotel management courses in India is to prepare the students to face the challenges of this competitive world. As far as tourism industry in India is concerned, it is attracting tourists from across the world and this definitely calls for quality hospitality.

Hotel Management Course Scope

Hotel management job opportunities exists both in the private and public sector. One can look for various openings available in the hotels of the nation. Most of the hotels in India offer lucrative pay packages to the suitable candidates. The jobs offered are satisfying as well as highly rewarding.

Hotel Management Course Admissions

Candidates seeking admission to the hotel management courses in India need to pass their 12th standard examination with English as a subject. Students with a bachelor's degree from any recognized university may also join some of the management training schemes offered by various institutions. Admission depends on the performance of the students in the written admission test, personal interview round and group discussion session. The time duration of the courses offered by several institutes may vary from six months to three years.

Personal Factor

Being a service industry, having the right attitude is most important. The employees must have an outgoing and pleasant personality, capacity for hard work and a liking for interacting with people. The ability to keep the situation under control during any crisis, discipline, commitment and dedication is a must.
 
The Prospects

Besides working in hotels, hotel management diploma/degree holders have the following options:

* Restaurant Management/Fast Food Joint Management

* Club Management/Recreation & Health Centre Management

* Cruise Ship Hotel Management

* Hospital Administration and Catering

* Institutional and Industrial Catering

* Airline Catering and Cabin Services

* Manufacturers and Suppliers of Hotel and Restaurant Equipment and Services

* Hotel and Catering Institutes

* Hotel and Tourism Associations

* Catering Departments in banks and insurance houses

* With government owned catering departments, for example railway, armed forces, ministerial conventions, etc.

* In food, confectionery, beverage production industries.

Hotel Management as a Career Option

Hotel management is one of the most interesting career options in the contemporary job market. Career training from a recognized and reputed hotel management institute is just an icing on the cake.

In India there are many hotel management institutes and colleges which provide hospitality or hotel management courses.

These hotel management courses make one aware of the operating-sections of the hotel industry like front office, general operations, sales and marketing, food and beverage, service keeping and catering.

Jobs in Hotel Management

The Managers

Hotel managers are responsible for the efficient and profitable operation of their establishments. The General Manager controls the finances, establishment norms to be followed by the staff while providing their services to the guests, housekeeping, food quality, decor and interiors. Assistant Managers supervise the day-to-day operations of their departments. Large hotels have Resident Managers to resolve problems round the clock. The Department Managers work under the supervision and guidance of the top management.

The Front Office

The first people to welcome guests in a hotel are the personnel in the front office. The Front Office Manager supervises the work of the receptionists, information clerk, reservation clerk and other service personnel like bell captain, bell boy and doorman. The Bell Boy assists the guests with the baggage to check in to the room. The Bell Captain supervises the work of bell boys. The Information Clerk delivers the telephone messages to the guests through the Bell Captain.

F&B (Food and Beverage)

This department includes:

* Culinary Unit

* Steward Department

* Food Service Department

Restaurant and Food Service Managers are responsible for stocks of tableware, linens, paper, supplies furniture, and fixtures cleaning. They arrange for equipment maintenance and repairs. They also have to maintain records of hours and wages of employees, payrolls, and taxes, etc. Banquet Managers are in-charge of catering assignments.

Housekeeping

A hotel requires maintenance on a very large scale. Hotels have a house keeping department to look after cleanliness in rooms, lounges, lobby, restaurant, dining halls, parks etc. This department functions under the supervision of the Executive Housekeeper.

Executive Housekeepers are responsible for ensuring that guest rooms, meeting and banquet rooms and public areas are clean, orderly and well maintained. They train, schedule and supervise the work of housekeepers, inspect rooms and order for the necessary supplies. Housekeeping is a round the clock job .This department works in shifts.

Marketing Department

Today marketing of services is a major aspect of hotel management. Sales and marketing division works to identify the needs of prospective customers, develop stay packages to suit their needs and sell the services, which have been developed.

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Environmental studies is the academic field which systematically studies human interaction with the environment. It is a broad interdisciplinary field of study that includes the natural environment, built environment, and the sets of relationships between them. While distinct from ecology and environmental science, the discipline encompasses study in the basic principles of those two fields of learning as well as the associated subjects, such as: policy, politics, law, economics, sociology and other social aspects, planning, pollution control, natural resources, and the interactions of human beings and nature.

Exploring the relationship between humans and the environment.

The core courses offered in the ES major ground students in the study of the environment from scientific, cultural, historical, and societal perspectives. The broad distribution of elective courses offers the ES major the opportunity to explore a wide range of interdisciplinary approaches to environmental concerns. The student may also choose to focus her elective studies. For example, a student interested in environmental science may choose to center her electives around biology, chemistry, and economics, while a student interested in global environmental issues may choose elective courses in international studies, political science, and anthropology.

The Hollins environmental studies program is distinguished by its experiential component, which requires all majors to be involved in an internship or service project in their field of interest. The program uses an interdisciplinary approach because the causes and consequences of environmental problems and the skills required to develop solutions are complex. The goal of the ES program is to provide students with a holistic understanding of enviromental issues of local, national, and global importance.

Components

Atmospheric sciences focuses on the Earth's atmosphere, with an emphasis upon its interrelation to other systems. Atmospheric sciences can include studies of meteorology, greenhouse gas phenomena, atmospheric dispersion modeling of airborne contaminants,sound propagation phenomena related to noise pollution, and even light pollution.

Taking the example of the global warming phenomena, physicists create computer models of atmospheric circulation and infra-red radiation transmission, chemists examine the inventory of atmospheric chemicals and their reactions, biologists analyze the plant and animal contributions to carbon dioxide fluxes, and specialists such as meteorologists and oceanographers add additional breadth in understanding the atmospheric dynamics.

Ecology. An interdisciplinary analysis of an ecological system which is being impacted by one or more stressors might include several related environmental science fields. For example, one might examine an estuarine setting where a proposed industrial development could impact certain species by water and air pollution. For this study, biologists would describe the flora and fauna, chemists would analyze the transport of water pollutants to the marsh, physicists would calculate air pollution emissions and geologists would assist in understanding the marsh soils and bay muds.

Environmental chemistry is the study of chemical alterations in the environment. Principal areas of study include soil contamination and water pollution. The topics of analysis include chemical degradation in the environment, multi-phase transport of chemicals (for example, evaporation of a solvent containing lake to yield solvent as an air pollutant), and chemical effects upon biota.

As an example study, consider the case of a leaking solvent tank which has entered the habitat soil of an endangered species of amphibian. As a method to resolve or understand the extent of soil contamination and subsurface transport of solvent, a computer model would be implemented. Chemists would then characterize the molecular bonding of the solvent to the specific soil type, and biologists would study the impacts upon soil arthropods, plants, and ultimately pond-dwelling organisms that are the food of the endangered amphibian.

Geosciences include environmental geology, environmental soil science, volcanic phenomena and evolution of the Earth's crust. In some classification systems this can also include hydrology, including oceanography.

As an example study of soils erosion, calculations would be made of surface runoff by soil scientists. Fluvial geomorphologists would assist in examining sediment transport in overland flow. Physicists would contribute by assessing the changes in light transmission in the receiving waters. Biologists would analyze subsequent impacts to aquatic flora and fauna from increases in water turbidity.

Environmental Career Descriptions

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BIO-INFORMATICS

Bioinformatics is the application of statistics and computer science to the field of molecular biology.

The term bioinformatics was coined by Paulien Hogeweg in 1979 for the study of informatic processes in biotic systems. Its primary use since at least the late 1980s has been in genomics and genetics, particularly in those areas of genomics involving large-scale DNA sequencing.

Bioinformatics now entails the creation and advancement of databases, algorithms, computational and statistical techniques and theory to solve formal and practical problems arising from the management and analysis of biological data.

Over the past few decades rapid developments in genomic and other molecular research technologies and developments in information technologies have combined to produce a tremendous amount of information related to molecular biology. It is the name given to these mathematical and computing approaches used to glean understanding of biological processes.

Common activities in bioinformatics include mapping and analyzing DNA and protein sequences, aligning different DNA and protein sequences to compare them and creating and viewing 3-D models of protein structures.

The primary goal of bioinformatics is to increase the understanding of biological processes. What sets it apart from other approaches, however, is its focus on developing and applying computationally intensive techniques (e.g., pattern recognition, data mining, machine learning algorithms, and visualization) to achieve this goal. Major research efforts in the field include sequence alignment, gene finding, genome assembly, drug design, drug discovery, protein structure alignment, protein structure prediction, prediction of gene expression and protein-protein interactions, genome-wide association studies and the modeling of evolution.

EVOLUATIONARY BIOLOGY

Evolutionary biology is the study of the origin and descent of species, as well as their change over time. Informatics has assisted evolutionary biologists in several key ways; it has enabled researchers to:

* trace the evolution of a large number of organisms by measuring changes in their DNA, rather than through physical taxonomy or physiological observations alone,
* more recently, compare entire genomes, which permits the study of more complex evolutionary events, such as gene duplication, horizontal gene transfer, and the prediction of factors important in bacterial speciation,
* build complex computational models of populations to predict the outcome of the system over time
* track and share information on an increasingly large number of species and organisms

Future work endeavours to reconstruct the now more complex tree of life.The area of research within computer science that uses genetic algorithms is sometimes confused with computational evolutionary biology, but the two areas are not necessarily related.

SCOPE IN BIO-INFORMATICS IN INDIA

Bioinformatics career in is increasingly attracting the youngsters in India today. The scope of bioinformatics is in areas like database design and maintenance, sequence assembly, proteomics, clinical pharmacologist, sequence analysis, informatics developer and bio-analytics. Excellent job opportunities are available in Biotech and Pharmaceutical companies in India. Indian companies like Wipro, Reliance, Satyam, TCS and companies like Accelrys and IBM Life Sciences Pubgene, Silicon Genetics and Tessella offer good employments to the bioinformatics candidates. Due to increasing demand of bioinformatics candidates, a career in bioinformatics offer good prospects

CARRER IN BIO-INFORMATICS

The career prospects in the field has been steadily increasing with more and more use of information technology in the field of molecular biology. Job prospects are in all sectors of biotechnology, pharmaceutical and biomedical sciences, in research institutions, hospital and industry. Some of the specific career areas that fall within the scope of bioinformatics include Sequence assembly, Database design and maintenance, Sequence analysis, Proteomics (the study of protein, particularly their structures and functions), Pharmacogenomics, Pharma-cology, Clinical pharmacologist, Informatics developer, Computational chemist, Bio-analytics and Analytics etc.

BIO-TECHNOLOGY

Biotechnology is a field of applied biology that involves the use of living things in engineering, technology, medicine, and other useful applications. Modern use similar term includes genetic engineering as well as cell- and tissue culture technologies. The concept encompasses a wide range of procedures (and history) for modifying living organisms according to human purposes - going back to domestication of animals, cultivation of plants, and "improvements" to these through breeding programs that employ artificial selection and hybridization. By comparison to biotechnology, bioengineering is generally thought of as a related field with its emphasis more on higher systems approaches (not necessarily altering or using biological materials directly) for interfacing with and utilizing living things. The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity defines biotechnology as:

"Any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use."

Biotechnology draws on the pure biological sciences (genetics, microbiology, animal cell culture, molecular biology, biochemistry, embryology, cell biology) and in many instances is also dependent on knowledge and methods from outside the sphere of biology (chemical engineering, bioprocess engineering, information technology, biorobotics). Conversely, modern biological sciences (including even concepts such as molecular ecology) are intimately entwined and dependent on the methods developed through biotechnology and what is commonly thought of as the life sciences industry.

Applications

"A rose plant that began as cells grown in a tissue culture"

Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including 1.health care (medical), 2.crop production and agriculture, 3.non food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g. biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and 4.environmental uses.

For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). Another example is using naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation), and also to produce biological weapons.

A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology, for example:

* Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization and analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to as computational biology, and can be defined as, "conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale." Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.

* Blue biotechnology is a term that has been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.

* Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example would be the selection and domestication of plants via micropropagation. Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environments in the presence (or absence) of chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby ending the need of external application of pesticides. An example of this would be Bt corn. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate.

* Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genetic manipulation.

* White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods.[citation needed] The investment and economic output of all of these types of applied biotechnologies is termed as bioeconomy.

Medicine

In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising applications in such areas as

* drug production

* pharmacogenomics

* gene therapy

* genetic testing: techniques in molecular biology detect genetic diseases. To test the developing fetus for Down syndrome, Amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling can be used.

Career options

As there is increasing popularity and explosive growth, there is plenty of opportunities available in Biotechnology field. You can be a Research Scientist, Teacher, Marketing manager, Science Writer, Bioinformists, Quality Control Officer or Production in-charge in the Food, Chemical and Pharmaceutical industry. Analyst (Venture-Capitalist)Environmental / Safety Specialist .Biotechnology companies require Corporate Executives with business/management Degrees. A graduate in Biotechnology can get job in government sectors such as Universities and Colleges, Research institutes or at Private Centers as Research scientists/assistants.

Lab technician: includes cleaning and maintaining equipment used by scientists and working on the various pieces of lab equipment as instructed. Research associate: If you are interested in Research and Development, then becoming a Research Associate can provide an interesting career that allows you to carry out experiments under the instruction of established Scientists.

Research scientist: if you wish to enter the field at a high level, you may choose to become a Research Scientist. This involves working alongside established scientists to design and carry out experiments, then writing reports for future publication. Engineer (Chemical, Electrical, Environmental and Industrial): This position would involve engaging in a range of projects from building robots to assisting with Research and Development

. Sales representative: As a sales representative, you would work with hospitals, doctors and a wide range of medical institutions to keep them aware of biotechnology's latest offerings, as well as trying to encourage their approval for your products over rival products in the market. Marketing: In biotechnology marketing, you would manage and devise campaigns aimed at particular customer areas, through such methods as working with advertising agencies and maintaining a visible presence at medical conventions and trade shows. Business development manager

: This position involves working with colleagues to introduce products and to negotiate agreements with strategic partners

GENETIC -ENGINEERING

Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification, is the human manipulation of organisms genetic material in a way that does not occur under natural conditions. It involves the use of recombinant DNA techniques, but does not include traditional animal and plant breeding or mutagenesis. Any organism that is generated using these techniques is considered to be a genetically modified organism. The first organisms genetically engineered were bacteria in 1973 and then mice in 1974. Insulin producing bacteria were commercialized in 1982 and genetically modified food has been sold since 1994.

Producing genetically modified organisms is a multi-step process. It first involves the isolating and copying the genetic material of interest. A construct is built containing all the genetic elements for correct expression. This construct is then inserted into the host organism, either by using a vector or directly through injection, in a process called transformation. Successfully transformed organisms are then grown and the presence of the new genetic material is tested for.

Genetic engineering techniques have been applied to various industries, with some success. Medicines such as insulin and human growth hormone are now produced in bacteria, experimental mice such as the oncomouse and the knockout mouse are being used for research purposes and insect resistant and/or herbicide tolerant crops have been commercialized. Plants that contain drugs and vaccines, animals with beneficial proteins in their milk and stress tolerant crops are currently being developed.

APPLICATION

Genetic engineering has applications in medicine, research, industry and agriculture and can be used on a wide range of plants, animals and micro organism.

INDUSTRIAL

By engineering genes into bacterial plasmids it is possible to create a biological factory that can produce proteins and enzymes. Some genes do not work well in bacteria so yeast (a eukaryote) can also be used.Bacteria and yeast factories have been used to produce medicine (like insulin, human growth hormones and vaccines), supplements (such as tryptophan), aid in the production of food (chymosin in cheese making) and fuel. Other applications involving genetically engineered bacteria been investigated involve making the bacteria perform tasks outside their natural cycle, such as cleaning up oil spills, carbon and other toxic waste.

HUMAN

Gene therapy is the genetic engineering of humans by replacing defective human genes with functional copies. This can occur in somatic tissue or germline tissue. If the gene is inserted into the germline tissue it can be passed down to that persons descendants,Gene therapy has been used to treat patients suffering from immune deficiencies (notably Severe combined immunodeficiency) and trials have been carried out on other genetic disorders. The success of gene therapy so far has been limited and a patient (Jesse Gelsinger) has died during a clinical trial testing a new treatment. There are also ethical concerns should the technology be used not just for treatment, but for enhancement, modification or alteration of a human beings' appearance, adaptability, intelligence, character or behavior.

RESEARCH

Genetic engineering is an important tool for natural scientists. Genes and other genetic information from a wide range of organisms are transformed into bacteria for storage and modification, creating genetically modified bacteria in the process. Bacteria are cheap, easy to grow, clonal, multiply quickly, relatively easy to transform and can be stored at -80°C almost indefinitely. Once a gene is isolated it can be stored inside the bacteria providing an unlimited supply for research.

AGRICULTURE

One of the best-known and controversial applications of genetic engineering is the creation of genetically modified foods. There are three generations of genetically modified crops.First generation crops have been commercialized and most provide protection from insects and/or resistance to herbicides. There are also fungal and virus resistant crops developed or in development. They have been developed to make the insect and weed management of crops easier and can indirectly increase crop yield.

OTHER USES

In materials science, a genetically modified virus has been used to construct a more environmentally friendly lithium-ion battery. Some bacteria have been genetically engineered to create black and white photographs while others have potential to be used as sensors by expressing a fluorescent protein under certain environmental conditions. Genetic engineering is also being used to create BioArt and novelty items such as blue roses, and glowing fish.

 CARRER IN GENETIC- ENGINEERING

There is an increasing demand for genetic engineers in India as well as abroad. Genetic engineers are mainly absorbed in medical and pharmaceutical industries

, the agricultural sector, and the research and development departments of the government and private sectors. They can also take up teaching as an option.

Genetic engineering involves developing hybrid varieties of plants, making a plant disease resistant by transferring genes from a plant that already has the characteristic, introducing Genetically Modified foods by changing the colour, size, texture of the produce of plants such as fruits and vegetables. GE in humans can be to correct severe hereditary defects by introducing normal genes into cells in place of missing or defective ones.

MICRO-BIOLOGY

Microbiology (from Greek μῑκρος, mīkros, "small"; βίος, bios, "life"; and -λογία, -logia) is the study of microorganisms, which are unicellular or cell-cluster microscopic organisms.This includes eukaryotes such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes. Viruses, though not strictly classed as living organisms, are also studied. In short; microbiology refers to the study of life and organisms that are too small to be seen with the naked eye. Microbiology typically includes the study of the immune system, or Immunology. Generally, immune systems interact with pathogenic microbes; these two disciplines often intersect which is why many colleges offer a paired degree such as "Microbiology and Immunology".

Microbiology is a broad term which includes virology, mycology, parasitology, bacteriology and other branches. A microbiologist is a specialist in microbiology and these other topics.

Microbiology is researched actively, and the field is advancing continually. It is estimated only about one percent of all of the microbe species on Earth have been studied.Although microbes were directly observed over three hundred years ago, the field of microbiology can be said to be in its infancy relative to older biological disciplines such as zoology and botany.

Fields

The field of microbiology can be generally divided into several subdisciplines:

* Microbial physiology: The study of how the microbial cell functions biochemically. Includes the study of microbial growth, microbial metabolism and microbial cell structure.

* Microbial genetics: The study of how genes are organized and regulated in microbes in relation to their cellular functions. Closely related to the field of molecular biology.

* Cellular microbiology: A discipline bridging microbiology and cell biology.

* Medical microbiology: The study of the pathogenic microbes and the role of microbes in human illness. Includes the study of microbial pathogenesis and epidemiology and is related to the study of disease pathology and immunology.

* Veterinary microbiology: The study of the role in microbes in veterinary medicine or animal taxonomy.

* Environmental microbiology: The study of the function and diversity of microbes in their natural environments. Includes the study of microbial ecology, microbially-mediated nutrient cycling, geomicrobiology, microbial diversity and bioremediation. Characterisation of key bacterial habitats such as the rhizosphere and phyllosphere, soil and groundwater ecosystems, open oceans or extreme environments (extremophiles).

* Evolutionary microbiology: The study of the evolution of microbes. Includes the study of bacterial systematics and taxonomy.

* Industrial microbiology: The exploitation of microbes for use in industrial processes. Examples include industrial fermentation and wastewater treatment. Closely linked to the biotechnology industry. This field also includes brewing, an important application of microbiology.

* Aeromicrobiology: The study of airborne microorganisms.

* Food microbiology: The study of microorganisms causing food spoilage and foodborne illness. Using microorganisms to produce foods, for example by fermentation.

* Pharmaceutical microbiology: the study of microorganisms causing pharmaceutical contamination and spoil

* Agricultural microbiology: The study of agriculturaly important microorganisms.

* Soil Microbiology: The study of those microorganisms which are found in soil.

* Water microbiology: The study of those micoorganims thats are found in water.

* Generation microbiology: The study of those micoorganims thats have same characters as their parents.

* Nano microbiology: The study of those micoorganims at nano level.

Where do microbiologists work?

Universities, research institutes and industrial companies employ microbiologists to do basic, environmental, healthcare and agricultural research. Medical microbiologists also work in hospitals and Health Protection Agency laboratories.

Industrial microbiologists work in a range of companies – from big pharmaceutical, biochemical, biotechnology and food businesses through to smaller firms that develop biopharmaceuticals or specialist products.

MOLECULAR - BIOLOGY

Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level. This field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly genetics and biochemistry. Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interactions between DNA, RNA and protein biosynthesis as well as learning how these interactions are regulated.

Writing in Nature in 1961, William Astbury described molecular biology as not so much a technique as an approach, an approach from the viewpoint of the so-called basic sciences with the leading idea of searching below the large-scale manifestations of classical biology for the corresponding molecular plan. It is concerned particularly with the forms of biological molecules and [...] is predominantly three-dimensional and structural—which does not mean, however, that it is merely a refinement of morphology. It must at the same time inquire into genesis and function.

Relationship to other biological sciences

researchers in molecular biology use specific techniques native to molecular biology (see Techniques section later in article), but increasingly combine these with techniques and ideas from genetics and biochemistry. There is not a defined line between these disciplines. The figure above is a schematic that depicts one possible view of the relationship between the fields:

* Biochemistry is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in living organisms. Biochemists focus heavily on the role, function, and structure of biomolecules. The study of the chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules are examples of biochemistry.

* Genetics is the study of the effect of genetic differences on organisms. Often this can be inferred by the absence of a normal component (e.g. one gene). The study of "mutants" – organisms which lack one or more functional components with respect to the so-called "wild type" or normal phenotype. Genetic interactions (epistasis) can often confound simple interpretations of such "knock-out" studies.

* Molecular biology is the study of molecular underpinnings of the process of replication, transcription and translation of the genetic material. The central dogma of molecular biology where genetic material is transcribed into RNA and then translated into protein, despite being an oversimplified picture of molecular biology, still provides a good starting point for understanding the field. This picture, however, is undergoing revision in light of emerging novel roles for RNA.

Much of the work in molecular biology is quantitative, and recently much work has been done at the interface of molecular biology and computer science in bioinformatics and computational biology. As of the early 2000s, the study of gene structure and function, molecular genetics, has been amongst the most prominent sub-field of molecular biology.

Increasingly many other loops of biology focus on molecules, either directly studying their interactions in their own right such as in cell biology and developmental biology, or indirectly, where the techniques of molecular biology are used to infer historical attributes of populations or species, as in fields in evolutionary biology such as population genetics and phylogenetics. There is also a long tradition of studying biomolecules "from the ground up" in biophysics.

ABOUT BIOCHEMISTRY

Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living organisms. It deals with the structures and functions of cellular components such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and other biomolecules. Over the last 40 years biochemistry has become so successful at explaining living processes that now almost all areas of the life sciences from botany to medicine are engaged in biochemical research. Today the main focus of pure biochemistry is in understanding how biological molecules give rise to the processes that occur within living cells which in turn relates greatly to the study and understanding of whole organisms.

Among the vast number of different biomolecules, many are complex and large molecules (called polymers), which are composed of similar repeating subunits (called monomers). Each class of polymeric biomolecule has a different set of subunit types.For example, a protein is a polymer whose subunits are selected from a set of 20 or more amino acids. Biochemistry studies the chemical properties of important biological molecules, like proteins, and in particular the chemistry of enzyme-catalyzed reactions.

The biochemistry of cell metabolism and the endocrine system has been extensively described. Other areas of biochemistry include the genetic code (DNA, RNA), protein synthesis, cell membrane transport, and signal transduction.


Places of Employment

Colleges and universities employ the majority of biochemists as teachers or researchers in schools of arts and sciences, medicine, engineering, pharmacy, dentistry, veterinary medicine, and agriculture. The Department of Agriculture, the National Institutes of Health, and the Environmental Protection Agency are just a few of the government agencies that employ biochemists specializing in basic research analyzing food, drugs, air, water, waste, or animal tissue. Industries that produce pharmaceuticals, agricultural chemicals, foods, feeds, and consumer products also employ biochemists in research as well as in areas outside the lab such as marketing, management, science information, technical writing, and editing. Drug companies employ biochemists to research the causes of disease and to develop drugs to combat these diseases. Biotechnology companies employ biochemists in research quality control, clinical research, manufacturing, and information systems with applications to the environment, energy, human health care, agriculture, and animal health. Some biochemists work in hospitals.

WEB DESIGN COURSE

Web design is the skill of creating presentations of content (usually hypertext or hypermedia) that is delivered to an end-user through the World Wide Web, by way of a Web browser or other Web-enabled software like Internet television clients, microblogging clients and RSS readers.

The intent of Web design is to create a website—a collection of electronic documents and applications that reside on a Web server/servers and present content and interactive features/interfaces to the end user in form of Web pages once requested.[citation needed] Such elements as text, bit-mapped images (GIFs, JPEGs) and forms can be placed on the page using HTML/XHTML/XML tags. Displaying more complex media (vector graphics, animations, videos, sounds) requires plug-ins such as Adobe Flash, QuickTime, Java run-time environment, etc. Plug-ins are also embedded into web page by using HTML/XHTML tags.

Improvements in browsers' compliance with W3C standards prompted a widespread acceptance and usage of XHTML/XML in conjunction with Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) to position and manipulate web page elements and objects. Latest standards and proposals aim at leading to browsers' ability to deliver a wide variety of content and accessibility options to the client possibly without employing plug-ins.

Typically Web pages are classified as static or dynamic:

* Static pages don’t change content and layout with every request unless a human (web master/programmer) manually updates the page. A simple HTML page is an example of static content.
* Dynamic pages adapt their content and/or appearance depending on end-user’s input/interaction or changes in the computing environment (user, time, database modifications, etc.) Content can be changed on the client side (end-user's computer) by using client-side scripting languages (JavaScript, JScript, Actionscript, etc.) to alter DOM elements (DHTML). Dynamic content is often compiled on the server utilizing server-side scripting languages (Perl, PHP, ASP, JSP, ColdFusion, etc.). Both approaches are usually used in complex applications.

With growing specialization in the information technology field there is a strong tendency to draw a clear line between web design and Web development.

Web design is a kind of graphic design intended for development and styling of objects of the Internet's information environment to provide them with high-end consumer features and aesthetic qualities. The offered definition separates Web design from web programming, emphasizing the functional features of a web site, as well as positioning web design as a kind of graphic design.

The process of designing web pages, web sites, web applications or multimedia for the Web may utilize multiple disciplines, such as animation, authoring, communication design, corporate identity, graphic design, human-computer interaction, information architecture, interaction design, marketing, photography, search engine optimization and typography.

* Markup languages (such as HTML, XHTML and XML)
* Style sheet languages (such as CSS and XML)
* Client-side scripting (such as JavaScript)
* Server-side scripting (such as PHP and ASP)
* Database technologies (such as MySQL and PostgreSQL)
* Multimedia technologies (such as Flash and Silverlight)

Web pages and websites can be static pages, or can be programmed to be dynamic pages that automatically adapt content or visual appearance depending on a variety of factors, such as input from the end-user, input from the Webmaster or changes in the computing environment (such as the site's associated database having been modified).

With growing specialization within communication design and information technology fields, there is a strong tendency to draw a clear line between Web design specifically for web pages and Web development for the overall logistics of all web-based services.

Areas of specialization in Web Design

Many web designers specialize. Specialization allows a designer to focus on a particular area and skill while building a reputation in a specific niche. Possible specializations include:

# Ecommerce
# Flash animation
# HTML and CSS design
# Database integration
# Search engine optimization

NANO TECHNOLOGY

"I want to build a billion tiny factories, models of each other, which are manufacturing simultaneously. . . The principles of physics, as far as I can see, do not speak against the possibility of maneuvering things atom by atom. It is not an attempt to violate any laws; it is something, in principle, that can be done; but in practice, it has not been done because we are too big." — Richard Feynman, Nobel Prize winner in physics

What is Nanotechnology?
A basic definition: Nanotechnology is the engineering of functional systems at the molecular scale. This covers both current work and concepts that are more advanced.
In its original sense, 'nanotechnology' refers to the projected ability to construct items from the bottom up, using techniques and tools being developed today to make complete, high performance products.With 15,342 atoms, this parallel-shaft speed reducer gear is one of the largest nanomechanical devices ever modeled in atomic detail.
The Meaning of Nanotechnology

When K. Eric Drexler (right) popularized the word 'nanotechnology' in the 1980's, he was talking about building machines on the scale of molecules, a few nanometers wide—motors, robot arms, and even whole computers, far smaller than a cell. Drexler spent the next ten years describing and analyzing these incredible devices, and responding to accusations of science fiction. Meanwhile, mundane technology was developing the ability to build simple structures on a molecular scale. As nanotechnology became an accepted concept, the meaning of the word shifted to encompass the simpler kinds of nanometer-scale technology. The U.S. National Nanotechnology Initiative was created to fund this kind of nanotech: their definition includes anything smaller than 100 nanometers with novel properties.
Much of the work being done today that carries the name 'nanotechnology' is not nanotechnology in the original meaning of the word. Nanotechnology, in its traditional sense, means building things from the bottom up, with atomic precision. This theoretical capability was envisioned as early as 1959 by the renowned physicist Richard Feynman.
Four Generations


Mihail (Mike) Roco of the U.S. National Nanotechnology Initiative has described four generations of nanotechnology development (see chart below). The current era, as Roco depicts it, is that of passive nanostructures, materials designed to perform one task. The second phase, which we are just entering, introduces active nanostructures for multitasking; for example, actuators, drug delivery devices, and sensors. The third generation is expected to begin emerging around 2010 and will feature nanosystems with thousands of interacting components. A few years after that, the first integrated nanosystems, functioning (according to Roco) much like a mammalian cell with hierarchical systems within systems, are expected to be developed.
1.PASSIVE NANOSTRUCTURE.
A.Dispersed and contact Nanostuctures Ex:aerosols,colloids.
B.Product incorporating Nano structure Ex:coatings,nanoparticle reinforced composites;nano stuctured metals, polymers, cermaics.

2.ACTIVE NANO STUCTURES:
A.Bio-active health effects Ex:targeted drugs, bio devices.
B.physico-chemical active ex: 3d transistors, amplifirers actuator, adaptive stucture

3.SYSTEM OF NANO SYSTEM:
Ex :Guided assembling, 3d network and new hierarchical architectures, robotics, evolutinary

4.MOLECULAR NANO SYSTEMS:
Ex:molecular devices by design' atomic system, emerging function
What Education is Needed and in Which Fields?

Nanoscale phenomena underlie many of the properties and interactions of matter, and thus the sciences of physics, chemistry, and biology. Studying these fields, and paying attention to the developments in nanoscience that advance them and the applications in nanotechnology that they support, can provide you with a solid foundation for any of a broad range of careers.

Potential fields of study include:

* Biology
* Chemistry
* Physics
* Environmental Science
* Agricultural Science
* Engineering
* Medicine
* Forensic Science
* Law
* Business
* Ethics

Where are the Career Areas?

In areas as diverse as designing medical diagnostic devices to building better batteries, from creating cosmetics to enhancing energy efficient windows, from auto and plane manufacturing to researching the nature of matter itself, knowledge of nanoscale science and technology will be increasingly important during upcoming years and decades.

Current applications of nanoscale science and technology, and thus career opportunities, exist in areas such as:

* Electronics/semiconductor industry
* Materials science including textiles, polymers, packaging, among other
* Auto and aerospace industries
* Sports equipment
* Pharmaceuticals including drug delivery, cosmetics, among others
* Biotechnology
* Medical fields
* Optoelectronics
* Environmental monitoring and control
* Food science including quality control and packaging
* Forensics
* University and federal lab research
* National security
* Military
* And many more

Nanoscale science and technology are fueling a revolution in manufacturing and production, creating new materials and novel processes. Not only will the areas listed above continue to grow and benefit from nanotechnology, but the following fields are expected to undergo explosive developments:

* Medicine: diagnostics and therapeutics (e.g., drug delivery)
* Energy: capture, storage, & use; fuel cells, batteries
* Environmental remediation: in conjunction with GM microbes
* Robotics: many uses
* Manufacturing: self-assembly; “bottom-up” fabrication of novel materials
* Commerce: Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) “smart” tags
* Space exploration: space elevator

As these lists of nanoscience-based applications indicate, our world is increasingly dependent on science for food, shelter, energy, etc. For our democratic society to function effectively, citizens must become familiar with at least some basic science and, perhaps even more importantly, with thinking scientifically.

ABOUT AERONATICS

INTRODUCTION


Aeronautics (from Greek ὰήρ āēr which means "air" and ναυτική nautikē which means "navigation, seamanship", i.e. "navigation of the air") is the science involved with the study, design, and manufacture of flight-capable machines, or the techniques of operating aircraft. While the term—literally meaning "sailing the air"—originally referred solely to the science of operating the aircraft, it has since been expanded to include technology, business and other aspects related to aircraft. One of the significant parts in aeronautics is a branch of physical science called aerodynamics, which deals with the motion of air and the way that it interacts with objects in motion, such as an aircraft. Aviation is a term sometimes used interchangeably with aeronautics, although "aeronautics" includes lighter-than-air craft such as airships, while "aviation" does not.





EARLY AERONAUTICS




The first mention of aeronautics in history was in the writings of ancient Egyptians who described the flight of birds. It also finds mention in ancient China where people were flying kites thousands of years ago. The medieval Islamic scientists were not far behind, as they understood the actual mechanism of bird flight. Before scientific investigation of aeronautics started, people started thinking of ways to fly. In a Greek legend, Icarus and his father Daedalus built wings of feathers and wax and flew out of a prison. Icarus flew too close to the sun, the wax melted, and he fell in the sea and drowned. When people started to scientifically study how to fly, people began to understand the basics of air and aerodynamics. Ibn Firnas may have tried to fly in 8th century in Cordoba, Al-Andalus.



Roger Bacon and Leonardo da Vinci were some of the first modern Europeans to study aeronautics. Leonardo studied the flight of birds in developing engineering schematics for some of the earliest flying machines in the late fifteenth century AD. His schematics, however, such as the ornithopter ultimately failed as practical aircraft. The flapping machines that he designed were either too small to generate sufficient lift, or too heavy for a human to operate.



Although the ornithopter continues to be of interest to hobbyists, it was replaced by the glider in the 19th century. Sir George Cayley was one of the most important people in the history of aeronautics. Many consider him the first true scientific aerial investigator and the first person to understand the underlying principles and forces of flight.A pioneer of aeronautical engineering, he is credited as the first person to separate the forces of lift and drag which are in effect on any flight vehicle,



Francesco Lana de Terzi, a 17th Century Jesuit professor of physics and mathematics from Brescia, Lombardy, has been referred to as the Father of Aeronautics. In his work Prodromo dell'Arte Maestra (1670) he proposes a lighter-than-air vessel based on logical deductions from previous work ranging from Archimedes and Euclid to his contemporaries Robert Boyle and Otto von Guericke.



CAREER IN AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING



Eligibility: 10 + 2 Science; high percentage of marks in Science subjects and qualifying exam (JEE) To be an aeronautical engineer one should be a BE/B.Tech. in aeronautics. The Madras Institute of Technology offers a year postgraduate programme in aeronautical engineering for B.Sc. students. One can also study for M.Tech. and Ph.D. in aeronautics from the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.



Those who have passed the Associate membership exam conducted by ASI (Aeronautical Society of India), which is at par with a bachelor's degree in aeronautical engineering, can also become aeronautical engineers. It is possible to take a degree in electronics or physics to work in this field and leave more options open



INSTITUTES / COLLEGES IN INDIA OFFERING AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING.


* Indian Institute of Technology, Powai, Mumbai.

* IIT, Kharagpur 721302 (WB).

* Indian Institute of Technology, Chennai 600036 (Tamil Nadu).

* Madras Institute of Technology, Chennai 600044 (Tamil Nadu).

* Hindustan Inst of Engineering Technology, Chennai 600016
(Tamil Nadu).

* Nehru College of Aeronautical and Applied Sciences, Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu).

* School of Aviation Science and Technology, Delhi Flying Club, Safdarjung Airport, New Delhi.

* Punjab Engineering College, Chandigarh 160011.

* IIT, Kanpur 208016.
* Indian Institute of Aeronautics, Patna Airport, Patna 800014 (Bihar).

* Institute of Aviation Technology, 1265, Sector 6, Bahadurgarh, Haryana 124507.

* VSM Aerospace, Chelekere Village (Near Kammanahalli), Bangalore 560008 (Karnataka).

* Hindustan Electronics Academy, Ulsoor, Bangalore 560008 (Karnataka).

* Indian Institute of Aeronautical Engineering, 179, Kalidas Road, Dehradun 248001 (Uttaranchal).

GAMING INDUSTRY

CREATIVITY IN THER GAMING INDUSTRY MAKES IT A FASCINATING CARRER OPTION NOW A DAYS

India has emerged as an important destination for the game development today. According to swathi Salunkhe , a carrer counscellor, "Natural apssion, even though very important , is only one aspect that makes a good gaming professional.Being a perfectionist is a highly- sought quality.Fianlly , having a go- getter attitude to do the best and come out with a killer title is what realiiy works".

SKILLS REQUIRED

*Strong interset in video games
*Good communication skills
*Good knowledge of software
*Meticulous and attentive to detail
*Ability to follow instruction
*Ingenutiy and innovation

Experts say companies do not look for a paritcular degree when recruiting those interseted are tested in logical thinking, drawing and IQ.

PROS AND CONS

The positives of being in this industry:
*It's a highly creative field
*It's open to people from various educational back-grounds,having originality
*It's good pay for the young

RENUMARATION:-

Interns in the game development team are paid between Rs 5,000 and Rs 8,000 per month.A fresher programer/designer can earn between Rs1,20,000-Rs1,80,000 per year.This can increase to Rs 3-6 lakh a year depending upon experience and the company .Across the industry,programmers and conceptualizatisers can start between Rs12,000 and Rs 15,000 per month.Graphic artists can hope to earn around Rs 10,000 to Rs 12,000 per month

SCOPE FOR GROWTH

One can start working as part of a game development team.With experince one can become a senior game developer.Those with over five years of experince as a team leader become associate producers.After 10 years , one can become a producer and hold a key role in agame development organization.

(source :www.bangloremiror.com)

COMPUTERS THAT'S MORE LIKE US

IBM (NYSE: IBM) and five universities are receiving funding from a government agency to build a supercomputer -- but not just any supercomputer. They've been tasked with building hardware and software that mimics the human brain.

"There are no computers today that can even remotely approach the robust and versatile functionality of the brain," said Dharmendra Modha, manager of cognitive computing at IBM Research.

"The mind is a collection of mental processes dealing with sensation, perception, action, cognition, emotion and interaction," he told TechNewsWorld. "It can integrate senses such as sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell. And it can act in a context-dependent way in real-world complex environments in the presence of ambiguity, while requiring very low power consumption and being very compact."

Cognitive computing, explained Modha, is the quest to engineer mind-like intelligent business machines by reverse engineering the computational function of the brain and packaging it in a small, low-power chip.

DARPA Funding

IBM and top researchers from Stanford University, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Cornell University, Columbia University Medical Center and University of California-Merced have received US$4.9 million in funding from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency for the first phase of DARPA's Systems of Neuromorphic Adaptive Plastic Scalable Electronics, or SyNAPSE, initiative.

During the first nine months, researchers will focus on developing nanoscale, low power synapse-like devices, and on uncovering the functional microcircuits of the brain.

The research will build on the IBM cognitive computing team's recent work with the BlueGene supercomputer: the near-real-time simulation of a brain the size of a small mammal, using cognitive computing algorithms to develop mathematical hypotheses of brain function and structure.

Besides Modha, other members of the team include Stanford University's Kwabena Boahen, H. Phillip Wong and Brian Wandell; University of Wisconsin-Madison's Gulio Tononi; Rajit Manohar of Cornell; Columbia's Stefano Fusi; and Christopher Kello of the University of California-Merced. IBM researchers include Stuart Parkin, Chung Lam, Bulent Kurdi, J. Campbell Scott, Paul Maglio, Simone Raoux, Rajagopal Ananthanarayanan, Raghav Singh, and Bipin Rajendran.

Artificial Intelligence vs. Cognitive Computing

The goal of cognitive computing is to engineer holistic intelligent machines that can connect huge amounts of sensory data.

"The underlying issue driving this is that as computers become used for increasingly complex and large problems, you run into some serious challenges with how to approach those problems in traditional linear computational fashion," Charles King, principal with Pund-IT, told TechNewsWorld.

"Artificial intelligence starts with a problem -- not a question -- and then seeks to develop an algorithm to solve that problem. Cognitive computing approaches it backwards; the idea is to create a mechanism that is capable of acting like a brain for assembling pieces of complex puzzles and then speed decision making."

Real world applications might include a computer that can assemble and digest the massive volumes of information from the global financial system -- and then make decisions based on that input, King said. "It is virtually impossible for a human to make that kind of calculation."

Another possibility might be an application that can identify areas of the world that will be affected by climate change to a much higher degree of accuracy, suggested King. Sensors can now be deployed by the millions to measure changes in ocean levels -- but there is no way to effectively monitor and then analyze all of that data.

On the consumer level, Modha said, it is conceivable that a small device -- an "iBrain," let's call it -- could be developed to alert the user when something untoward happens, based on the sensory information it receives. For instance, a portable device could monitor an unoccupied home and alert the homeowner when a system or situation requires attention.

Research Challenges

Applications such as these are at least 10 years away, though, and the team must solve a few practical issues first, said David Orenstein, spokesperson for the Stanford School of Engineering.

"Fundamentally, the issue is that this is a very different way of designing a computer from the current structure of binary 0s and 1s," he told TechNewsWorld. "The brain's structure allows it to form new connections among switches on the fly and is connected to many other elements, as opposed to a step-by-step linear progression."

In short, new computing designs and materials will be needed. A researcher at Stanford has been working on this problem, using standard transistors "in creative arrangements," Orenstein said.

"There is some thinking that we might want to explore other ways, as well as trying to scale up what we are already doing."

(source:www.technewsworld.com)